Major Works Data Sheet the Awakening by Kate Chopin

IB English HL Major Works Data Sheet: The Awakening | | |Author: Kate Chopin Year of publication: 1899 | | | | | |What are the time and place(s) in which story is set? What is the setting’s significance?†¦show more content†¦Shows the constraints she is under as a woman in their society. Brings Edna back to reality. | |Quarrel/exchange between Pontellier couple. Roles reverse as Edna refuses to come to bed when her husband asks. She asks him to come to bed | |and he agrees with a â€Å"Yes.† This is in direct contrast with the beginning of the novel. | |Robert and Edna go to a different island the next morning and spend the entire day there. Edna â€Å"sleeps for a hundred years† awakens and | |becomes a new being. Majorly transformative scene. | |Robert flees to Mexico for so called â€Å"fortune seeking† after realizing he is getting too close to falling in love with Edna. He leaves without| |warning, leaving Edna is despair. | |The story changes setting and moves to the conventional setting of New Orleans, Louisiana. Edna is once again constricted by societal demands.| |Edna begins to slack off on the children, home and her relationships. Her husband reprimands her. | |She searches for Reiz after

The A Strong Willed Child - 895 Words

The Strong Willed Child Obstinate, disrespectful, freedom to grow and building of self -expressions are common definitions of a parent (s) with a Strong-Willed Child (SWC). A test in patience with no end in sight, what are the causes and recourse in dealing with this commonly accepted behavior in children that are pushing parents to the end of the emotional limits? Is the act of sparing the rod effective? Conversely, by disciplining or encouraging in an authoritative style, address the needs of a strong-willed child? The objective of this narrative is to provide clinical case study facts on how to identify, modify and promote healthy behaviors in the SWC and provide biblical views on the standards in raising children that honor God and parents. Strong Willed Children The challenges of parenting a strong-willed child who acts out behaviors pose a significant challenge to families. Often this disruptive behavior is construed as being strong willed, but notwithstanding, may be indicators of the gifted and talented child. These behavioral similarities may be overlooked or misdiagnosed by psychologist and health professionals and consequently labeled as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Oppositional Disorder (OD, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD), or any of the other mood disorders (Webb, 2000). What’s the difference? In determining whether a child is gifted or strong willed, a parenting assessment should be performed. The characteristics of aShow MoreRelatedStrong-Willed Child Book Report Essay example2650 Words   |  11 Pagesâ€Å"There once was a little girl with a curl in the middle of her forehead and when she was good she was very very good and when she was bad she was horrid.† That is the poem my mother used to recite to me when I was being â€Å"strong-willed†. Jokingly, I believe it is just a proper way of saying difficult; also known to my mother as stubborn, defiant and full of steam. One story in particular she described me as crying so angrily that my tears came shooting straight out. There may perhaps be some exaggerationRead MoreDevelopment of Characters in Nathaniel Hawthornes Scarlett Letter953 Words   |  4 Pagescharacters change or evolve in some way. These changes are shown through their actions, words, thoughts, and feelin gs. In Nathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter, the author develops the characters of Pearl Prynne as candid, Hester Prynne as strong-willed, and Reverend Dimmesdale as hypocritical. Hawthornes ability to develop characters is evident throughout the novel, and is apparent when portraying Pearl as candid. Pearl is the daughter of Hester and is a very outgoing seven-year-old. UnbeknownstRead MoreEssay Role Models and Leadership in Romeo and Juliet816 Words   |  4 Pagesin order to be a strong leader. 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However, when it comes to dealing with external conflicts, they are very strong-willed.   On the other hand, she also indicates that maternal love is strong.   Women have passionate beliefs in the importance   of the family.   As the stories follow, these feminine personalities are gradually proved.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Before leaving for India, Juliet had a hardRead MoreBullying Starts From Unwanted Behaviors Essay1103 Words   |  5 PagesBullying starts from unwanted behaviors that are mostly produced during adolescent, around middle School years. It can even be produced by parents who are bullies, thus allowing the child to produced dominating behaviors. Bullying starts with an aggressive child who feels like they are empowered to control. They begin controlling others with their words. 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The impact of this historical time on the relationship between mother and child is illustrated in the short story by Tillie Olson titled: â€Å"I Stand Here Ironing† and in some chapter segments of Russell Baker’s book titled: â€Å"Growing Up†. Both works are reflections on the past told in first person narrative. This conveys a strong sense of authenticity as the past and present are melded together. These reminisces grant an insight into the human conditionRead MoreScarlet Letter Character Analysis1081 Words   |  5 PagesThe events in an author’s life affect the style and content of their literary works, which is expressed throughout Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter. Pearl being an outcast from the rigid Puritan morals, and Hesters being independent and strong-willed challenges traditional society. These aspects all mirror the authors emotions and hardships of his early life through the literary element of characterization. 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Unfortunately, Grandmother MacLeod is obligated to take after the house and look after Vanessa until Vanessas mother conceives a child. Both works displayed three strong characters to demonstrate power within the home to help keep structure for the young main characters, who not only

Quality Management Operational Excellence- Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Quality Management Operational Excellence? Answer: Introduction TQM (total quality management) is the continuous process that helps the company in reducing and eliminating the errors. The error or default might occur in the internal business process such as manufacturing, enhancing the customer experience, supply chain management, and ensuring that the employees are properly trained (Dale, 2015). This assignment is based on the assignment 2 which is based on Dominos, the assignment 2 talks about the tools and techniques of TQM. This report is written to the owner and the board of directors of the company. The report shows the benefits of the TQM and the implementation of the TQM in the company. Benefits of TQM TQM is an approach that is used by the company to bring the improvement in the processes of the business (Goetsch, Davis, 2014). Increased profitability: - Company will be able to earn more of profit if company apply TQM. With the help of the TQM the company will bring the improvement in the quality of the products and services it is delivering to the customers that enhance the sales of the company and ultimately profit will increase (Mitra, 2016). Increased employee motivation: - The company believes that the employees of the plays a vital role in the working of the organization. The employees will participate in the ongoing process of the TQM that leads to the success. This success of the company will motivate the employees and helps in enhancing the morale of employees. Changes in the business once TQM is implemented Once the company will implement the TQM, there will be changes in the internal process of the business. The customer satisfaction and loyalty will increase because they get quality products. The quality of the products will improve because of the implementation of the TQM in a company. This customer satisfaction enhances the brand value and brand position in the market (Charter, 2017). The employees of the company dont have to do repetitive work that encourages the employees towards maintaining the quality in the work. TQM brings the improvement in the delivery timings of the products that enhance the customer trust and enhance the sales of the product. This will enhance the profit of the company. Principles of TQM The company's owner and the directors can implement the principles of the TQM that helps the company in influencing the culture and the behavior of the employees (Talib, Rahman, Qureshi, 2013). Producing Quality work TQM helps the company bring the quality into the internal processes of the business. To achieve the quality that is required for the company to provide proper training to the employees to enhance the capabilities and skills of the employees. The Dominos bring the quality in the product which is highly demanded by the company. Focus on customer The expectations and demand of the customers matter a lot for the company. The marketing team of dominos makes sure that they are able to analyze the demand of the customer through social media, e-mail, survey, company's website, survey (Sallis, 2014). Once the demand of the customer will be fulfilled company will be able to enhance the share value of the company. Strategic approach to improvement This is a duty of the purchasing department of dominos is to check the quality of the raw material. The purchasing department checks the quality of the suppliers offers in the raw material that the company provides. The company makes the deal with the suppliers who give the assurance of the quality. Improve continuously Training and development of the employee will improve the quality of the products and services so that the company will be able to accomplish the strategic goals and objectives. The HRD team of Dominos makes sure that they hired employees having qualification so that they can meet the expectations of the organizations. Encourage mutual respect and teamwork The leaders and the managers of the company make sure that their team members work together and respect each other. Teamwork and mutual respect increase a value in the culture of the organization that helps the company in retaining the employees of the Dominos. Demings fourteen points on quality The Demings 14 points on quality are core processes that guide a way to the Dominos to implement the TQM process in the company (Akhter, 2014). Create a constant purpose toward improvement Long-term quality improvement comes with the implementation of the TQM. The innovative ways help the company to solve the current and the future challenges of the business. Adopt the new philosophy New vision of handling the quality of the product and services will help the company in fulfilling the needs and expectations of the company. Stop depending on inspections inspection is the costly and time-consuming process. The business should not be depended on the inspection but they should bring the improvement. Use a single supplier for any one item The business should form a good relationship with the suppliers who can assure the quality. The company can motivate the company to enhance the quality of the raw material (Nanda, 2016). Improve constantly and forever The business should continuously improve the quality of the products that company delivers. Use training on job The on job training helps the company in understanding their role in the achieving the goals and success of the company. On job training helps the employees in understanding the cultures and values of the Dominos (Gimenez-Espin, Jimnez-Jimnez, Martnez-Costa, 2013). Implement leadership The leader and manager of the company need to understand the employees and have to guide them so that they will able to maintain the quality in their work. Eliminate fear The employees and the leader should always try to follow the open and honest communication to avoid the unnecessary fear of the employees in the organization. Break down barriers between departments The organization should try to follow cross-functional department that helps the smooth working of the business. The department in the organization should focus on the collaboration and consensus instead of compromise. Get rid of unclear slogans Slogans use should be avoided by the managers of the employees. The manager should not use unclear slogans to praise the employees. The company should always use the face to face communication to praise the employees. Eliminate management by objective It is not necessary for the company to achieve the goals but it is must to achieve the quality. It is the responsibility of the manager to understand the capabilities of the employees in order to bring the development of the employees. Remove barriers to pride of workmanship Incentive, Pay, rates, work standards, piecework shows administration lack of understanding. The company should provide the pride to the employees for doing the quality work. The monetary benefits will only enhance the competition and some conflict among the team members. Implement education and self-improvement The company should make their employees capable of dealing with the current as well as with future changes or challenges. The Dominos company employees know very well how to deal with the future environment because they provided proper education and self-improvement sessions to their employees. This helps the employees to deal with the dynamic conditions. Make transformation everyones job The organization always motivate the employees to step towards the improvement of the quality. The manager and the leader make the employees understand that their role in the improvement of the quality process. Every business brings the new and effective change in the implementation plan of the TQM. Conclusion The company who is looking to achieve the profit along with the brand value and reputation should implement the TQM in the business. This is the only way for the Dominos to bring the improvement in the quality and leads to the success for the long-period of time. The main aim of the report is to make the owner understand that the implementation of the TQM is beneficial for the company (Oakland, 2014). The Demings fourteen points on quality help the company for the effective implementation of TQM in business. References Akhter, S. (2014). Deming Management Method in the Readymade Garments Industry of Bangladesh. Journal of Management, 9(1), 178-189. Charter, M. (Ed.). (2017). Greener marketing: A responsible approach to business. Routledge. Dale, B. (2015). Total quality management. John Wiley Sons, Ltd. Gimenez-Espin, J. A., Jimnez-Jimnez, D., Martnez-Costa, M. (2013). Organizational culture for total quality management. Total Quality Management Business Excellence, 24(5-6), 678-692. Goetsch, D. L., Davis, S. B. (2014). Quality management for organizational excellence. Upper Saddle River, NJ: pearson. Mitra, A. (2016). Fundamentals of quality control and improvement. John Wiley Sons. Nanda, V. (2016). Quality management system handbook for product development companies. CRC Press. Oakland, J. S. (2014). Total quality management and operational excellence: text with cases. Routledge. Sallis, E. (2014). Total quality management in education. Routledge. Talib, F., Rahman, Z., Qureshi, M. N. (2013). An empirical investigation of relationship between total quality management practices and quality performance in Indian service companies. International journal of quality reliability management, 30(3), 280-318.

Solar Water Purifier free essay sample

BACKGROUND INFORMATION4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM4 Objectives4 Justifications and significance4 Limitations4 Precautions5 Advantages5 CHAPTER 26 Literature review6 CHAPTER 37 Methodology7 Apparatus7 Procedure7 Observations7 CHAPTER 49 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION9 CHAPTER 510 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION10 REFERENCES10 CHAPTER 1: ABSTRACT BACKGROUND INFORMATION Solar water purifier is a device that purifies water through solar energy. Dirty water is a key link in the cycle of water borne diseases that affects the worlds’ poorest day who would otherwise contribute more to the overall economic and social development. Improved solar water purifier directly impacts on achieving universal education and reducing the rate of mortality. Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants, suspended solids and gases from contaminated water. The goal is to produce water fit for a specific purpose. Most water is purified for human consumption (drinking water), but water purification may also be designed for a variety of other purposes, including meeting the requirements of medical, pharmacological, chemical and industrial applications. We will write a custom essay sample on Solar Water Purifier or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In general the methods used include physical processes such as filtration, sedimentation, and distillation, biological processes such as slow sand filters or biologically active carbon, chemical processes such as flocculation and chlorination and the use of electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light. The purification process of water may reduce the concentration of particulate matter including suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi; and a range of dissolved and particulate material derived from the surfaces that water may have made contact with after falling as rain. The standards for drinking water quality are typically set by governments or by international standards. These standards will typically set minimum and maximum concentrations of contaminants for the use that is to be made of the water. It is not possible to tell whether water is of an appropriate quality by visual examination. Simple procedures such as boiling or the use of a household activated carbon filter are not sufficient for treating all the possible contaminants that may be present in water from an unknown source. Even natural spring water – considered safe for all practical purposes in the 19th century – must now be tested before determining what kind of treatment, if any, is needed. Chemical and microbiological analysis, while expensive, are the only way to obtain the information necessary for deciding on the appropriate method of purification. According to a 2007 World Health Organization (WHO) report, 1. 1 billion people lack access to an improved drinking water supply, 88 percent of the 4 billion annual cases of diarrheal disease are attributed to unsafe water and inadequate sanitation and hygiene, and 1. million people die from diarrheal diseases each year. The WHO estimates that 94 percent of these diarrheal cases are preventable through modifications to the environment, including access to safe water. [1] Simple techniques for treating water at home, such as chlorination, filters, and solar disinfection, and storing it in safe containers could save a huge number of lives each year. [2] Reducing deaths from waterborne diseases is a major public health goal in developing countries. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The rate at which flooding occurs especially this season is rising at an alarming rate . Places such as Kano plains, Tana river , Budalangi are experiencing high levels of flooding. The water from floods may come across open sewerages, decaying organism and garbage which contaminate water sources. Such water is not healthy for human consumption. Approximately 1. 8 million people die due to diarrhoeal diseases such as cholera every year. Access to clean water is one of the global issues affecting the world and will continue to be so, as demand increases. Objectives 1 . Reduce intake and usage of dirty water domestically. 2. Reduce the number of medical cases brought about by intake of dirty water. 3. Introduction of a method of water purification which requires less human labour and its environment friendly. 4. To put an end to usage of chemicals in water purification which maybe a health hazard. Justifications and significance 1. It enables Kenyans to use clean water and minimize the medical cases brought about by dirty water. 2. It minimizes the rate at which people die due to water borne diseases. Limitations 1. It can’t work when the saturation deficit is low in the atmosphere. . It tends to be slow. 3. It is not portable. Precautions 1. It should be handled with care as it tends to be delicate. Advantages 1. It continues to work when sun rays are cut off because the black coating tends to lose heat at a lower intensity which can’t penetrate through the glass thus heat is retained. 2. Energy is readily available and renewable which is the sun. 3. The materials that are used to build it are locally available and at an affordable cost. 4. Its efficient and healthy as the water is purified at the end of the process. 5. Its environmental friendly as it doesn’t pollute the environment 6. It is ideal for the arid and semi –arid areas where there are high temperatures. CHAPTER 2 Literature review Sources of water Further information: Water supply 1. Groundwater: The water emerging from some deep ground water may have fallen as rain many tens, hundreds, or thousands of years ago. Soil and rock layers naturally filter the ground water to a high degree of clarity and often it does not require additional treatment other than adding chlorine or chloramines as secondary disinfectants. Such water may emerge as springs, artesian springs, or may be extracted from boreholes or wells. Deep ground water is generally of very high bacteriological quality (i. e. , pathogenic bacteria or the pathogenic protozoa are typically absent), but the water may be rich in dissolved solids, especially carbonates and sulfates of calcium and magnesium. Depending on the strata through which the water has flowed, other ions may also be present including chloride, and bicarbonate. There may be a requirement to reduce the iron or manganese content of this water to make it acceptable for drinking, cooking, and laundry use. Primary disinfection may also be required. Where groundwater recharge is practised (a process in which river water is injected into an aquifer to store the water in times of plenty so that it is available in times of drought), the groundwater may require additional treatment depending on applicable state and federal regulations. 2. Upland lakes and reservoirs: Typically located in the headwaters of river systems, upland reservoirs are usually sited above any human habitation and may be surrounded by a protective zone to restrict the opportunities for contamination. Bacteria and pathogen levels are usually low, but some bacteria, protozoa or algae will be present. Where uplands are forested or peaty, humic acids can colour the water. Many upland sources have low pH which require adjustment. 3. Rivers, canals and low land reservoirs: Low land surface waters will have a significant bacterial load and may also contain algae, suspended solids and a variety of dissolved constituents. 4. Atmospheric water generation is a new technology that can provide high quality drinking water by extracting water from the air by cooling the air and thus condensing water vapor. . Rainwater harvesting or fog collection which collects water from the atmosphere can be used especially in areas with significant dry seasons and in areas which experience fog even when there is little rain. 6. Desalination of seawater by distillation or reverse osmosis. 7. Surface Water: Freshwater bodies that are open to the atmosphere and are not designated as groundwater are classified i n the USA for regulatory and water purification purposes as surface water. Treatment The processes below are the ones commonly used in water purification plants. Some or most may not be used depending on the scale of the plant and quality of the raw (source) water. Pre-treatment 1. Pumping and containment – The majority of water must be pumped from its source or directed into pipes or holding tanks. To avoid adding contaminants to the water, this physical infrastructure must be made from appropriate materials and constructed so that accidental contamination does not occur. 2. Screening (see also screen filter) – The first step in purifying surface water is to remove large debris such as sticks, leaves, rubbish and other large particles which may interfere with subsequent purification steps. Most deep groundwater does not need screening before other purification steps. 3. Storage – Water from rivers may also be stored in backside reservoirs for periods between a few days and many months to allow natural biological purification to take place. This is especially important if treatment is by slow sand filters. Storage reservoirs also provide a buffer against short periods of drought or to allow water supply to be maintained during transitory pollution incidents in the source river. 4. Pre-chlorination – In many plants the incoming water was chlorinated to minimize the growth of fouling organisms on the pipe-work and tanks. Because of the potential adverse quality effects (see chlorine below), this has largely been discontinued. Widely varied techniques are available to remove the fine solids, micro-organisms and some dissolved inorganic and organic materials. The choice of method will depend on the quality of the water being treated, the cost of the treatment process and the quality standards expected of the processed water. H adjustment Pure water has a pH close to 7 (neither alkaline nor acidic). Sea water can have pH values that range from 7. 5 to 8. 4 (moderately alkaline). Fresh water can have widely ranging pH values depending on the geology of the drainage basin or aquifer and the influence of contaminant inputs (acid rain). If the water is acidic (lower than 7), lime, soda ash, or sodium hydroxide can be added to raise the pH during water purificati on processes. Lime addition increases the calcium ion concentration, thus raising the water hardness. For highly acidic waters, forced draft degasifiers can be an effective way to raise the pH, by stripping dissolved carbon dioxide from the water. Making the water alkaline helps coagulation and flocculation processes work effectively and also helps to minimize the risk of lead being dissolved from lead pipes and from lead solder in pipe fittings. Sufficient alkalinity also reduces the corrosiveness of water to iron pipes. Acid ( carbonic acid, hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid) may be added to alkaline waters in some circumstances to lower the pH. Alkaline water (above pH 7. 0) does not necessarily mean that lead or copper from the plumbing system will not be dissolved into the water. The ability of water to precipitate calcium carbonate to protect metal surfaces and reduce the likelihood of toxic metals being dissolved in water is a function of pH, mineral content, temperature, alkalinity and calcium concentration. Coagulation and flocculation One of the first steps in a conventional water purification process is the addition of chemicals to assist in the removal of particles suspended in water. Particles can be inorganic such as clay and silt or organic such as algae, bacteria, viruses, protozoa and natural organic matter. Inorganic and organic particles contribute to the turbidity and colour of water. The addition of inorganic coagulants such as aluminum sulfate (or alum) or iron (III) salts such as iron(III) chloride cause several simultaneous chemical and physical interactions on and among the particles. Within seconds, negative charges on the particles are neutralized by inorganic coagulants. Also within seconds, metal hydroxide precipitates of the aluminum and iron (III) ions begin to form. These precipitates combine into larger particles under natural processes such as Brownian motion and through induced mixing which is sometimes referred to as flocculation. The term most often used for the amorphous metal hydroxides is â€Å"floc. † Large, amorphous aluminum and iron (III) hydroxides adsorb and enmesh particles in suspension and facilitate the removal of particles by subsequent processes of sedimentation and filtration. Aluminum hydroxides are formed within a fairly narrow range, typically: 5. 5 to about 7. 7. Iron (III) hydroxides can form over a larger pH range including pH levels lower than are effective for alum, typically: 5. 0 to 8. 5. In the literature, there is much debate and confusion over the usage of the terms coagulation and flocculation—where does coagulation end and flocculation begin? In water purification plants, there is usually a high energy, rapid mix unit process (detention time in seconds) where the coagulant chemicals are added followed by flocculation basins (detention times range from 15 to 45 minutes) where low energy inputs turn large paddles or other gentle mixing devices to enhance the formation of floc. In fact, coagulation and flocculation processes are ongoing once the metal salt coagulants are added. [10]:74-5 Organic polymers were developed in the 1960s as aids to coagulants and, in some cases, as replacements for the inorganic metal salt coagulants. Synthetic organic polymers are high molecular weight compounds that carry negative, positive or neutral charges. When organic polymers are added to water with particulates, the high molecular weight compounds adsorb onto particle surfaces and through antiparticle bridging coalesce with other particles to form floc. PolyDADMAC is a popular cationic (positively charged) organic polymer used in water purification plants. [9]:667-8 Sedimentation Waters exiting the flocculation basin may enter the sedimentation basin, also called a clarifier or settling basin. It is a large tank with low water velocities, allowing floc to settle to the bottom. The sedimentation basin is best located close to the flocculation basin so the transit between the two processes does not permit settlement or floc break up. Sedimentation basins may be rectangular, where water flows from end to end, or circular where flow is from the centre outward. Sedimentation basin outflow is typically over a weir so only a thin top layer of water—that furthest from the sludge—exits. In 1904, Allen Hazen showed that the efficiency of a sedimentation process was a function of the particle settling velocity, the flow through the tank and the surface area of tank. Sedimentation tanks are typically designed within a range of overflow rates of 0. 5 to 1. 0 gallons per minute per square foot (or 1. 25 to 2. 5 meters per hour). In general, sedimentation basin efficiency is not a function of detention time or depth of the basin. Although, basin depth must be sufficient so that water currents do not disturb the sludge and settled particle interactions are promoted. As particle concentrations in the settled water increase near the sludge surface on the bottom of the tank, settling velocities can increase due to collisions and agglomeration of particles. Typical detention times for sedimentation vary from 1. 5 to 4 hours and basin depths vary from 10 to 15 feet (3 to 4. 5 meters). [8]:9. 39-9. 40[9]:790-1[10]:140-2, 171 Inclined flat plates or tubes can be added to traditional sedimentation basins to improve particle removal performance. Inclined plates and tubes drastically increase the surface area available for particles to be removed in concert with Hazen’s original theory. The amount of ground surface area occupied by a sedimentation basin with inclined plates or tubes can be far smaller than a conventional sedimentation basin. Sludge storage and removal As particles settle to the bottom of a sedimentation basin, a layer of sludge is formed on the floor of the tank. This layer of sludge must be removed and treated. The amount of sludge that is generated is significant, often 3 to 5 percent of the total volume of water that is treated. The cost of treating and disposing of the sludge can be a significant part of the operating cost of a water treatment plant. The sedimentation tank may be equipped with mechanical cleaning devices that continually clean the bottom of the tank or the tank can be periodically taken out of service and cleaned manually. Floc blanket clarifiers A subcategory of sedimentation is the removal of particulates by entrapment in a layer of suspended floc as the water is forced upward. The major advantage of floc blanket clarifiers is that they occupy a smaller footprint than conventional sedimentation. Disadvantages are that particle removal efficiency can be highly variable depending on changes in influent water quality and influent water flow rate. [9]:835-6 Dissolved air flotation When particles to be removed do not settle out of solution easily, dissolved air flotation (DAF) is often used. Water supplies that are particularly vulnerable to unicellular algae blooms and supplies with low turbidity and high colour often employ DAF. After coagulation and flocculation processes, water flows to DAF tanks where air diffusers on the tank bottom create fine bubbles that attach to floc resulting in a floating mass of concentrated floc. The floating floc blanket is removed from the surface and clarified water is withdrawn from the bottom of the DAF tank. [8]:9. 46 Filtration After separating most floc, the water is filtered as the final step to remove remaining suspended particles and unsettled floc. Rapid sand filters Cutaway view of a typical rapid sand filter The most common type of filter is a rapid sand filter. Water moves vertically through sand which often has a layer of activated carbon or anthracite coal above the sand. The top layer removes organic compounds, which contribute to taste and odour. The space between sand particles is larger than the smallest suspended particles, so simple filtration is not enough. Most particles pass through surface layers but are trapped in pore spaces or adhere to sand particles. Effective filtration extends into the depth of the filter. This property of the filter is key to its operation: if the top layer of sand were to block all the particles, the filter would quickly clog. [11] To clean the filter, water is passed quickly upward through the filter, opposite the normal direction (called backflushing or backwashing) to remove embedded particles. Prior to this step, compressed air may be blown up through the bottom of the filter to break up the compacted filter media to aid the backwashing process; this is known as air scouring. This contaminated water can be disposed of, along with the sludge from the sedimentation basin, or it can be recycled by mixing with the raw water entering the plant although this is often considered poor practice since it re-introduces an elevated concentration of bacteria into the raw water Some water treatment plants employ pressure filters. These work on the same principle as rapid gravity filters, differing in that the filter medium is enclosed in a steel vessel and the water is forced through it under pressure. Advantages: †¢Filters out much smaller particles than paper and sand filters can. †¢Filters out virtually all particles larger than their specified pore sizes. †¢They are quite thin and so liquids flow through them fairly rapidly. †¢They are reasonably strong and so can withstand pressure differences across them of typically 2–5 atmospheres. †¢They can be cleaned (back flushed) and reused. Slow sand filters Slow artificial filtration (a variation of bank filtration) to the ground, Water purification plant Karany, Czech Republic Slow sand filters may be used where there is sufficient land and space, as the water must be passed very slowly through the filters. These filters rely on biological treatment processes for their action rather than physical filtration. The filters are carefully constructed using graded layers of sand, with the coarsest sand, along with some gravel, at the bottom and finest sand at the top. Drains at the base convey treated water away for disinfection. Filtration depends on the development of a thin biological layer, called the zoogleal layer or Schmutzdecke, on the surface of the filter. An effective slow sand filter may remain in service for many weeks or even months if the pre-treatment is well designed and produces water with a very low available nutrient level which physical methods of treatment rarely achieve. Very low nutrient levels allow water to be safely sent through distribution systems with very low disinfectant levels, thereby reducing consumer irritation over offensive levels of chlorine and chlorine by-products. Slow sand filters are not backwashed; they are maintained by having the top layer of sand scraped off when flow is eventually obstructed by biological growth. [citation needed] A specific large-scale form of slow sand filter is the process of bank filtration, in which natural sediments in a riverbank are used to provide a first stage of contaminant filtration. While typically not clean enough to be used directly for drinking water, the water gained from the associated extraction wells is much less problematic than river water taken directly from the major streams where bank filtration is often used. Membrane filtration Membrane filters are widely used for filtering both drinking water and sewage. For drinking water, membrane filters can remove virtually all particles larger than 0. 2 um—including giardia and cryptosporidium. Membrane filters are an effective form of tertiary treatment when it is desired to reuse the water for industry, for limited domestic purposes, or before discharging the water into a river that is used by towns further downstream. They are widely used in industry, particularly for beverage preparation (including bottled water). However no filtration can remove substances that re actually dissolved in the water such as phosphorus, nitrates and heavy metal ions. Removal of ions and other dissolved substances Ultrafiltration membranes use polymer membranes with chemically formed microscopic pores that can be used to filter out dissolved substances avoiding the use of coagulants. The type of membrane media determines how much pressure is needed to drive t he water through and what sizes of micro-organisms can be filtered out. Ion exchange:[12] Ion exchange systems use ion exchange resin- or zeolite-packed columns to replace unwanted ions. The most common case is water softening consisting of removal of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions replacing them with benign (soap friendly) Na+ or K+ ions. Ion exchange resins are also used to remove toxic ions such as nitrate, nitrite, lead, mercury, arsenic and many others. Precipitative softening:[8]:13. 12-13. 58 Water rich in hardness (calcium and magnesium ions) is treated with lime (calcium oxide) and/or soda-ash (sodium carbonate) to precipitate calcium carbonate out of solution utilizing the common-ion effect. Electrodeionization:[12] Water is passed between a positive electrode and a negative electrode. Ion exchange membranes allow only positive ions to migrate from the treated water toward the negative electrode and only negative ions toward the positive electrode. High purity deionized water is produced with a little worse degree of purification in comparison with ion exchange treatment. Complete removal of ions from water is regarded as electrodialysis. The water is often pre-treated with a reverse osmosis unit to remove non-ionic organic contaminants. Disinfection Disinfection is accomplished both by filtering out harmful micro-organisms and also by adding disinfectant chemicals. Water is disinfected to kill any pathogens which pass through the filters and to provide a residual dose of disinfectant to kill or inactivate potentially harmful micro-organisms in the storage and distribution systems. Possible pathogens include viruses, bacteria, including Salmonella, Cholera, Campylobacter and Shigella, and protozoa, including Giardia lamblia and other cryptosporidia. Following the introduction of any chemical disinfecting agent, the water is usually held in temporary storage – often called a contact tank or clear well to allow the disinfecting action to complete. Chlorine disinfection Main article: Water chlorination The most common disinfection method involves some form of chlorine or its compounds such as chloramine or chlorine dioxide. Chlorine is a strong oxidant that rapidly kills many harmful micro-organisms. Because chlorine is a toxic gas, there is a danger of a release associated with its use. This problem is avoided by the use of sodium hypochlorite, which is a relatively inexpensive solution that releases free chlorine when dissolved in water. Chlorine solutions can be generated on site by electrolyzing common salt solutions. A solid form, calcium hypochlorite, releases chlorine on contact with water. Handling the solid, however, requires greater routine human contact through opening bags and pouring than the use of gas cylinders or bleach which are more easily automated. The generation of liquid sodium hypochlorite is both inexpensive and safer than the use of gas or solid chlorine. All forms of chlorine are widely used, despite their respective drawbacks. One drawback is that chlorine from any source reacts with natural organic compounds in the water to form potentially harmful chemical by-products. These by-products, trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs), are both carcinogenic in large quantities and are regulated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Drinking Water Inspectorate in the UK. The formation of THMs and haloacetic acids may be minimized by effective removal of as many organics from the water as possible prior to chlorine addition. Although chlorine is effective in killing bacteria, it has limited effectiveness against protozoa that form cysts in water (Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium, both of which are pathogenic). Chlorine dioxide disinfection Chlorine dioxide is a faster-acting disinfectant than elemental chlorine, however it is relatively rarely used, because in some circumstances it may create excessive amounts of chlorite, which is a by-product regulated to low allowable levels in the United States. Chlorine dioxide is supplied as an aqueous solution and added to water to avoid gas handling problems; chlorine dioxide gas accumulations may spontaneously detonate. Chloramine disinfection The use of chloramine is becoming more common as a disinfectant. Although chloramine is not as strong an oxidant, it does provide a longer-lasting residual than free chlorine and it wont form THMs or haloacetic acids. It is possible to convert chlorine to chloramine by adding ammonia to the water after addition of chlorine. The chlorine and ammonia react to form chloramine. Water distribution systems disinfected with chloramines may experience nitrification, as ammonia is a nutrient for bacterial growth, with nitrates being generated as a by-product. Ozone disinfection Ozone is an unstable molecule which readily gives up one atom of oxygen providing a powerful oxidizing agent which is toxic to most waterborne organisms. It is a very strong, broad spectrum disinfectant that is widely used in Europe. It is an effective method to inactivate harmful protozoa that form cysts. It also works well against almost all other pathogens. Ozone is made by passing oxygen through ultraviolet light or a cold electrical discharge. To use ozone as a disinfectant, it must be created on-site and added to the water by bubble contact. Some of the advantages of ozone include the production of fewer dangerous by-products and the absence of taste and odour problems (in comparison to chlorination) . Although fewer by-products are formed by ozonation, it has been discovered that ozone reacts with bromide ions in water to produces concentrations of the suspected carcinogen bromate. Bromide can be found in fresh water supplies in sufficient concentrations to produce (after ozonation) more than 10 ppb of bromate — the maximum contaminant level established by the USEPA. [13] Another advantage of ozone is that it leaves no residual disinfectant in the water. Ozone has been used in drinking water plants since 1906 where the first industrial ozonation plant was built in Nice, France. The U. S. Food and Drug Administration has accepted ozone as being safe; and it is applied as an anti-microbiological agent for the treatment, storage, and processing of foods. Ultraviolet disinfection Ultraviolet light (UV) is very effective at inactivating cysts, in low turbidity water. UV lights disinfection effectiveness decreases as turbidity increases, a result of the absorption, scattering, and shadowing caused by the suspended solids. The main disadvantage to the use of UV radiation is that, like ozone treatment, it leaves no residual disinfectant in the water; therefore, it is sometimes necessary to add a residual disinfectant after the primary disinfection process. This is often done through the addition of chloramines, discussed above as a primary disinfectant. When used in this manner, chloramines provide an effective residual disinfectant with very few of the negative aspects of chlorination. Various portable methods of disinfection Main article: Portable water purification Available for disinfection in emergencies or in remote locations. Disinfection is the primary goal, since aesthetic considerations such as taste, odor, appearance, and trace chemical contamination do not affect the short-term safety of drinking water. Solar water disinfection One low-cost method of disinfecting water that can often be implemented with locally available materials is solar disinfection (SODIS). [14][15][16][17] [18] Unlike methods that rely on firewood, it has low impact on the environment. One recent study has found that the wild Salmonella which would reproduce quickly during subsequent dark storage of solar-disinfected water could be controlled by the addition of just 10 parts per million of hydrogen peroxide. [19] Additional treatment options 1. Water fluoridation: in many areas fluoride is added to water with the goal of preventing tooth decay. Fluoride is usually added after the disinfection process. In the U. S. , fluoridation is usually accomplished by the addition of hexafluorosilicic acid, which decomposes in water, yielding fluoride ions. 2. Water conditioning: This is a method of reducing the effects of hard water. In water systems subject to heating hardness salts can be deposited as the decomposition of bicarbonate ions creates carbonate ions that precipitate out of solution. Water with high concentrations of hardness salts can be treated with soda ash (sodium carbonate) which precipitates out the excess salts, through the common-ion effect, producing calcium carbonate of very high purity. The precipitated calcium carbonate is traditionally sold to the manufacturers of toothpaste. Several other methods of industrial and residential water treatment are claimed (without general scientific cceptance) to include the use of magnetic and/or electrical fields reducing the effects of hard water. ] 3. Plumbosolvency reduction: In areas with naturally acidic waters of low conductivity (i. e. surface rainfall in upland mountains of igneous rocks), the water may be capable of dissolving lead from any lead pipes that it is carried in. The addition of small quantities of phosphate ion and increasing the pH slightly both assist in greatly reducing plumbo-solvency by creating insoluble lead salts on the inner surfaces of the pipes. 4. Radium Removal: Some groundwater sources contain radium, a radioactive chemical element. Typical sources include many groundwater sources north of the Illinois River in Illinois. Radium can be removed by ion exchange, or by water conditioning. The back flush or sludge that is produced is, however, a low-level radioactive waste. 5. Fluoride Removal: Although fluoride is added to water in many areas, some areas of the world have excessive levels of natural fluoride in the source water. Excessive levels can be toxic or cause undesirable cosmetic effects such as staining of teeth. Methods of reducing fluoride levels is through treatment with activated alumina and bone char filter media. Other water purification techniques Other popular methods for purifying water, especially for local private supplies are listed below. In some countries some of these methods are also used for large scale municipal supplies. Particularly important are distillation (de-salination of seawater) and reverse osmosis. 1. Boiling: Water is heated hot enough and long enough to inactivate or kill micro-organisms that normally live in water at room temperature. Near sea level, a vigorous rolling boil for at least one minute is sufficient. At high altitudes (greater than two kilometres or 5000 feet) three minutes is recommended. 23] In areas where the water is hard (that is, containing significant dissolved calcium salts), boiling decomposes the bicarbonate ions, resulting in partial precipitation as calcium carbonate. This is the fur that builds up on kettle elements, etc. , in hard water areas. With the exception of calcium, boiling does not remove solutes of higher boiling point than water a nd in fact increases their concentration (due to some water being lost as vapour). Boiling does not leave a residual disinfectant in the water. Therefore, water that is boiled and then stored for any length of time may acquire new pathogens. . Granular Activated Carbon filtering: a form of activated carbon with a high surface area, adsorbs many compounds including many toxic compounds. Water passing through activated carbon is commonly used in municipal regions with organic contamination, taste or odors. Many household water filters and fish tanks use activated carbon filters to further purify the water. Household filters for drinking water sometimes contain silver as metallic silver nanoparticle. If water is held in the carbon block for longer period, microorganisms can grow inside which results in fouling and contamination. Silver nanoparticles are excellent anti-bacterial material and they can decompose toxic halo-organic compounds such as pesticides into non-toxic organic products. [24] 3. Distillation involves boiling the water to produce water vapour. The vapour contacts a cool surface where it condenses as a liquid. Because the solutes are not normally vaporised, they remain in the boiling solution. Even distillation does not completely purify water, because of contaminants with similar boiling points and droplets of unvapourised liquid carried with the steam. However, 99. 9% pure water can be obtained by distillation. 4. Reverse osmosis: Mechanical pressure is applied to an impure solution to force pure water through a semi-permeable membrane. Reverse osmosis is theoretically the most thorough method of large scale water purification available, although perfect semi-permeable membranes are difficult to create. Unless membranes are well-maintained, algae and other life forms can colonize the membranes. 5. The use of iron in removing arsenic from water. See Arsenic contamination of groundwater. 6. Direct Contact Membrane Distillation (DCMD). Applicable to desalination. Heated seawater is passed along the surface of a hydrophobic polymer membrane. Evaporated water passes from the hot side through pores in the membrane into a stream of cold pure water on the other side. The difference in vapour pressure between the hot and cold side helps to push water molecules through. 7. Desalination is a process by which saline water (generally sea water) is converted to fresh water. The most common desalination processes are distillation and reverse osmosis. Desalination is currently expensive compared to most alternative sources of water, and only a very small fraction of total human use is satisfied by desalination. It is only economically practical for high-valued uses (such as household and industrial uses) in arid areas. 8. Gas hydrate crystals centrifuge method. If carbon dioxide or other low molecular weight gas is mixed with contaminated water at high pressure and low temperature, gas hydrate crystals will form exothermically. Separation of the crystalline hydrate may be performed by centrifuge or sedimentation and decanting. Water can be released from the hydrate crystals by heating[25] 9. In Situ Chemical Oxidation, a form of advanced oxidation processes and advanced oxidation technology is an environmental remediation technique used for soil and/or groundwater remediation to reduce the concentrations of targeted environmental contaminants to acceptable levels. ISCO is accomplished by injecting or otherwise introducing strong chemical oxidizers directly into the contaminated medium (soil or groundwater) to destroy chemical contaminants in place. It can be used to remediate a variety of organic compounds, including some that are resistant to natural degradation 10. Water Purification with Moringa Seeds Crushed Moringa seeds clarify and purify water to suit domestic use and lower the bacterial concentration in the water making it safe for drinking. Moringa seed powder can be used as a quick and simple method for cleaning dirty river water. Studies showed that this simple method of filtering not only diminishes water pollution, but also harmful bacteria. The moringa powder joins with the solids in the water and sinks to the bottom. This treatment also removes 90-99% of bacteria contained in water. [26] Demineralized water Distillation removes all minerals from water, and the membrane methods of reverse osmosis and nanofiltration remove most to all minerals. This results in demineralized water which is not considered ideal drinking water. The World Health Organization has investigated the health effects of demineralized water since 1980. [29] Experiments in humans found that demineralized water increased diuresis and the elimination of electrolytes, with decreased blood serum potassium concentration. Magnesium, calcium, and other minerals in water can help to protect against nutritional deficiency. Demineralized water may also increase the risk from toxic metals because it more readily leaches materials from piping like lead and cadmium, which is prevented by dissolved minerals such as calcium and magnesium. Low-mineral water has been implicated in specific cases of lead poisoning in infants, when lead from pipes leached at especially high rates into the water. Recommendations for magnesium have been put at a minimum of 10 mg/L with 20–30 mg/L optimum; for calcium a 20 mg/L minimum and a 40–80 mg/L optimum, and a total water hardness (adding magnesium and calcium) of 2 to 4 mmol/L. At water hardness above 5 mmol/L, higher incidence of gallstones, kidney stones, urinary stones, arthrosis, and arthropathies have been observed. [30] Additionally, desalination processes can increase the risk of bacterial contamination. [30] Manufacturers of home water distillers claim the opposite—that minerals in water are the cause of many diseases, and that most beneficial minerals come from food, not water. [31][32] They quote the American Medical Association as saying The bodys need for minerals is largely met through foods, not drinking water. The WHO report agrees that drinking water, with some rare exceptions, is not the major source of essential elements for humans and is not the major source of our calcium and magnesium intake, yet states that demineralized water is harmful anyway. Additional evidence comes from animal experiments and clinical observations in several countries. Animals given zinc or magnesium dosed in their drinking water had a significantly higher concentration of these elements in the serum than animals given the same elements in much higher amounts with food and provided with low-mineral water to drink. The solar water purifier ‘the best invention of the year’ enables users to drink water safely from contaminated water sources. It’s ideal for home owners during emergencies such as local flooding which can contaminate drinking water supplies. It is also ideal for campers and hikers who may be drinking from rivers or lakes; it is also ideal for travelers who don’t want to rely on the quality of local water. CHAPTER 3: Methodology Apparatus -Glass window. -Containers (3). -Charcoal. -Stands. Procedure Take a container A, pour dirty water and hang two pieces of cloth at its side ith their bases in contact with the water. The container should be raised 1metre above the ground. From the container A, a pipe should be leading to another container B containing charcoal. The whole part containing the tray with charcoal should have a black coating and be covered by a glass window . Lastly place container B at the end to collect the pure water. Observations The resulting water is clear. Water droplets were observed on the glass window. DATA It has been noticed there’s a high percentage of death due to dirty water . As stated earlier on, dirty water is a key link in the cycle of water borne diseases. 97 % of water in this world is salty sea water, 0. 07% retained water and 2. 23% is usable fresh water. The small percentage of water left is contaminated daily. The 97% of withheld water can be purified through the solar water purifier to solve strategies on lack of access of clean water. Approximately 1. 8 million people die due dirty water intake CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 41% of 39. 8 million Kenyans do not have access to clean water. In 2008, only 59% of all Kenyans had access to safe water. 1 The 2006 drought in Kenya was declared a national disaster, as 3. 5 million people faced starvation and food shortages. 5 Droughts continue to plague the region. Beyond the threat of drought-induced food scarcity, 10% of deaths in Kenya occur from water-borne or sanitation-related diseases. 6 DATA SHOWING KEY STATISTICS IN THE WATER SECTOR IN KENYA PERCENTAGEDESCRIPTION 41%The number of people who do not have access to clean water 59%Have access to clean water 0%The percentage of land in Kenya that is arid and semi- arid 10%Percentage of deaths in Kenya caused by water and sanitation-related diseases SOURCES Ministry of water and sanitation http://www. quietway. org/water-for-kenya/ CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION As stated earlier, the solar water purifier is healthy and efficient as the end product is pure. The materials used to construct it are locally available and it requires less human labour to construct it. Besides it is environment friendly as it does not pollute the environment in any way. It is also advisable to use it in purification of tap water as it may contain lead due to metallic pipes. We would like to recommend that the solar water purifier should be used in places such as slums, arid areas, flooding areas, by campers and tourists who do not rely on local water. This will reduce the rate of medical cases linked with water borne diseases, not to forget the rising death rates. We recommend that the government should distribute the solar water purifier to the less privileged as that will aid them. REFERENCES F. A. ABOTT , ADVANCE LEVEL PHYSICS 1999, LONDON www. wikipedia. com www. deka. org/water purification